Helminthic therapy and diabetes

    From Helminthic Therapy wiki

    NB. This page is concerned with the metabolic disorders commonly known as diabetes mellitus, which should not be confused with diabetes insipidus.

    Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes are major health issues across the globe. There is evidence that helminthic therapy may assist with prevention and treatment of these disorders.

    Type 1 diabetes[edit | edit source]

    Helminths and type 1 diabetes[edit | edit source]

    Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks and destroys insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. Once these cells are destroyed, the body is unable to produce insulin, which regulates blood glucose levels. A World Health Organization study found a significant difference in prevalence around the world:

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    A greater than 350-fold difference in the incidence of T1D among the 100 populations worldwide was reported with age-adjusted incidences ranging from a low of 0.1/100,000 per year in China and Venezuela to a high of 36.5/100,000 in Finland and 36.8/100,000 per year in Sardinia. The lowest incidence (<1/100,000 per year) was reported in the populations from China and South America and the highest incidence (>20/100,000 per year) was reported in Sardinia, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Portugal, the UK, Canada, and New Zealand. [1]

    A 25-year study found that the rate of type 1 diabetes in Europe is increasing by more than 3 percent per year [2], and a recent study by the US Centers for Disease control found increasing rates of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes in young US citizens. [3] The World Health Organization has found that diabetes is becoming more prevalent in middle- and low-income countries. [4]

    Many have hypothesized that the differential rates, as well as the current increase in middle- and low-income countries, may be related to industrialization and the medical and hygienic practices that come with it. [5]

    Prevention and treatment of T1D[edit | edit source]

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    Abundant evidence indicates that helminths and their by-products can exert immunomodulatory effects that prevent or delay the onset of T1D.… In the future, helminth-derived supplements may be included as part of a modern balanced diet. [6]

    There is evidence in both human and animal models that helminth infection is protective against the development of T1D. [7]. A study found that helminth infection "disrupt[s] the pathways leading to the Th1-mediated destruction of insulin-producing beta cells." [8] Findings like these have led some researchers to call for further study of helminth therapy as a deliberate preventative measure against the development of T1D. [9]

    Treatment is more complicated. Once the symptoms of this disease develop, the majority of insulin-producing beta cells have been lost. But there is cause for hope, as multiple approaches to regenerating these cells are being studied. It is now clear that, at least in mice, the pancreas contains cells capable of being converted into insulin-producing beta cells. This can be done at any age and the cells can be regenerated several times. [10] Encouragingly, another study found that a drug could encourage the generation of new insulin-producing beta cells in the human pancreas as well. [11] Stem cells are another promising subject of research on regenerating insulin-producing beta cells. [12] With the possibility of creating new beta cells, the combination of this regeneration with helminthic therapy to prevent further autoimmune destruction of beta cells may turn out to be a viable long-term treatment for Type 1 diabetes.

    There is also some evidence, however, that beta cells can be regenerated through immunomodulation alone.

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    New research shows promising progress in the use of anti-inflammatory cytokine for treatment of type 1 diabetes. The study reveals that administration of interleukin-35 (a protein made by immune cells) to mice with type 1 diabetes, reverses or cures the disease by maintaining a normal blood glucose level and the immune tolerance. [13]

    Another study found that increasing protective T-regulatory cells in the lymph nodes (the 'gates' of the pancreas) may help restore the production of insulin in T1D patients. [14] Helminths are capable of normalizing T-regs, but we don't yet have research that specifically confirms the regeneration of pancreatic beta cells through T-reg modulation via helminth infection.

    Research on mechanisms of prevention and treatment[edit | edit source]

    Animal models, while not a perfect way to study human health, allow us to understand the interaction of helminth immunomodulation and T1D on a detailed level. [15] [16]

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    In this study we show that soluble extracts of S. mansoni worm or egg completely prevent onset of type 1 diabetes in these mice but only if injection is started at 4 weeks of age... These effects of schistosome antigens on the innate immune system provide a mechanism for their ability to prevent type 1 diabetes in NOD mice. [17]
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    T cells from H. polygyrus (Hp)-inoculated NOD IL-4(-/-) mice to NOD mice blocked the onset of T1D. [18]
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    A significantly lower percentage of T. crassiceps-infected mice (40%) developed T1D compared to the uninfected group (100%). Insulitis was remarkably absent in T. crassiceps-infected mice, which had normal pancreatic insulin content, whereas uninfected mice showed a dramatic reduction in pancreatic insulin. [19]

    Some studies have also found that helminths may help, even after the onset of T1D.

    • One mouse model study found that helminth infection "significantly inhibits T1D... and also reduces the severity of T1D when administered late after the onset of insulitis." [20]
    • Experimentally induced type 1 diabetes is suppressed in mice during infection by the helminth, Heligmosomoides polygyrus. This is achieved by the secretion of trehalose which induces production of suppressive CD8+ Treg cells by means of alteration to the intestinal microbiota. [21]

    Scientific papers on helminths and T1D[edit | edit source]

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    A growing body of evidence indicates that certain helminthic infections can enhance insulin sensitivity by modulating host immune responses and suppressing chronic inflammation, offering promise for the treatment of DM... This therapy holds the potential not only to reduce the global healthcare burden of DM but also to provide new treatment opportunities for both healthcare providers and patients.
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    By regulating the activities of islet macrophages and β-cells (and other endocrine cells), helminth parasites shape their crosstalk. This offers a unique opportunity to exploit helminths’ mechanisms for survival in their mammalian hosts to establish an environment that preserves β-cell mass and function and thus offers the potential as a cure for both T1D and T2D.
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    Herein, we provide a comprehensive review of the effects and mechanisms underlying protection against T1D by helminths.
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    In this review, we discuss studies that have provided evidence for the beneficial impact of helminth infections on T1D and T2D.
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    In this review we summarize studies that investigated parasitic helminths and helminth-derived products and their impact on both type 1 and type 2 diabetes highlighting potential protective mechanisms.
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    This review provides an overview of the findings from animal models and additionally explores the potential for translation to the clinic.
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    This review outlines basic insight into the ability of helminths to modulate the onset and progression of T1D, and frames some of the challenges that helminth-derived therapies may face in the context of clinical translation.
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    “… it is highly likely that the decline of infections is one of the major explanations for the increased frequency of insulin-dependent diabetes in developed countries.
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    In this review, we summarize current findings regarding the effects of helminth infection on type 1 diabetes, tuberculosis, and asthma and discuss possible mechanisms through which helminthic parasites modulate host immunity.
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    In this review, some of the ways in which certain organisms might have influenced the onset of autoimmunity are discussed.

    More papers are listed on the Helminthic therapy research page.

    Personal experiences[edit | edit source]

    • "We started to notice high blood glucose (BG 250) in our 9 year-old in early Nov of 2012, and when we went to the endo on 20th of that month, we were given a 6-12 month projection for insulin dependence and had autoantibodies measured. The results came back significantly positive for GAD65 and IAA... About 2 days before our 6 month check up in mid Aug 2013 we went out for sushi and had ice cream afterwards. Post Prandial was 111. The Post Prandial should be below 180 to not be considered diabetic, but below 140 is more in the normal range. We were dumbfounded because, a while back, this PP would have been near the 160-180 mark if not higher. We were also not being as strict with diet and sleep, when we saw the endo, as it was summer, and we still need to be a kid! ;-) However, I really was thinking that the A1C would be at least 6.0, but it wasn't. It was 5.5... Currently we have 70HW on board and will be dosing with another 30 or so to get to the 100 mark." (Link expired)
    • “My 9yo son now has 70 HW, as our effort to head off pre-diabetes. His labs show his Triiodothyronine (T3) has gone from 181 to 136 with the helminths… His hemoglobin was called "high" before helminths at 5.8... Now it's 5.7.” (Reported at 10 months after the first inoculation.) [22]
    • “I have a son who was tested positive for type 1 diabetes autoantibodies (ICA,GADA IAA,IA2A) at the age of 8 months. We have been told that he will almost certainly develop diabetes sooner or later. He had his first HW when he was 2 years old (3 years ago). Since then his B-HbA1C (glycosylated haemoglobin) has gradually come down from 5.7 to 5.0. Also two out of four autoantibodies have disappeared.” [23] (For more about this case, see this and subsequent posts.)
    • “I am 60+ male who developed LADA (latent auto-immune diabetes in adults - sometimes called Type 1.5) out of the blue appx 20+ years ago. It gradually evolved to becoming insulin dependent. Nov. 2014 (13 months ago), all was going pretty well until I developed flu-like symptoms… Small doses of ibuprofen kept the pain at bay, but overall health continued to deteriorate… Then came the periodic double vision and ocular aches. January 31st, I started losing vision in one eye for 10 minutes at a time… My CRP was 165 and Sed Rate was 67. Oops! Neural ophthalmologist and Rheumatology Docs put me on high dose of Prednisone (60mg) to knock out the inflammation which had localized in the fat cells behind my eyes… by June the docs could not determine what caused this inflammatory outbreak. They ruled out everything and primarily ended up with a diagnosis of auto-immune disease with inflammation of unknown origin. Put me on 20mg weekly of Methotrexate (MTX) to replace the prednisone, but there was still some residual inflammation around my eyes. Rheumatologists wanted to put me on Rituximab… Still fatigued most of the time. My primary suggested HT as another approach. I began taking HDC at end of July. After 3 doses I was feeling much better and started reducing my doses of MTX… I increased doses to 60 ova biweekly in mid-October and have stayed at that dose. I weaned off MTX and stopped it entirely in mid-Nov. My inflammation markers are back to normal (CRP is 4.4; Sed Rate is 11) and I feel better than I have in 12 months… Ophthalmologist says everything looks ok and to only call if any symptoms return… My primary and I are both pleased with how HT is going.” [24]
    • "Treating T1 Diabetes with hookworms in a 10 year old male. Initial dose: 10 NA in 2016. From weeks 6 to 7, my son's blood sugar levels were extremely stable never going over 6.5, which is very rare for a diabetic. He had a few hypos mainly to do with putting in too much insulin, but we got down from 22 units of insulin per day to just 10/12. Hookworms were still helping at approximately 1 year, but his colony might have died soon after that, when I gave him oregano oil. After that happened, we saw worsening of blood sugars. We reinoculated with 10 NA and his BGs got better and better again. Most importantly, they were consistent with his diet... After those first two doses, my son decided not to continue dosing because of the initial discomfort, and he didn’t dose at all for the next 4 years, after which he resumed the treatment with a dose of 20 NA, which caused no major reactions. Now, the treatment seems to work for the first couple of weeks but doesn't last... We'll continue dosing as he is ok about it now, and perhaps he needs to have smaller doses but more often?" (Edited from three posts: [25] [26]] [27].)

    Type 2 diabetes[edit | edit source]

    Helminths and type 2 diabetes[edit | edit source]

    Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a condition in which the body still produces insulin, but develops insulin resistance and cannot use it effectively. The pancreas will try to compensate by producing more insulin, leading to glucose accumulation in the bloodstream. T2D can lead to health complications such as kidney problems, vision problems, nerve damage, poor blood circulation, heart attack, stroke, erectile dysfunction, and slow wound healing. Risk factors for T2D are mainly age, obesity, family history, and physical inactivity, but there is significant geographical variation in prevalence that points to additional risk factors:

    As in type 1 diabetes, there is marked geographical variation, but the pattern is different. The prevalence is lowest in rural areas of developing countries, generally intermediate in developed countries, and highest in certain ethnic groups, particularly those that have adopted Western lifestyle patterns... It is likely that interactions between the environment/lifestyle and genetic factors provide the explanation for the risk of type 2 diabetes. [28]

    Some explanation of this geographic variation may relate to rates of helminth infection, which a number of studies around the globe have shown to be protective against the development of T2D. [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] Some of these studies found that the removal of helminths from an individual appears to increase their risk of insulin resistance and T2D. This could be an important, but overlooked, contributor to the higher prevalence of T2D in industrialized nations, where helminth infections are much lower. [34] [35]

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    Some...antiparasitic drugs might induce diabetes, whereas helminth infections appear to afford some protection against future diabetes. [36]
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    Helminth infections... may be protective against the development of diabetes, and this finding opens up new territory for discovery of novel therapeutics for the prevention and treatment of diabetes.[37]
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    Participants with previous schistosome infection had... a lower prevalence of diabetes and metabolic syndrome compared with the uninfected, contemporaneous controls. [38]
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    We found previous schistosome infection (PSI) significantly correlated with lower prevalences of metabolic syndrome and its components, including central obesity, hypertriglyceridemia and low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, which indicates that the potential long-term effects of PSI may reduce the risk of metabolic syndrome. [39]
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    Low fasting blood sugar and reduced prevalence of dyslipidemia in S. mansoni egg positive participants might suggest inverse association of S. mansoni infection and development of metabolic syndromes. [40]
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    Thus helminth infections alleviate and anthelmintic therapy partially restores the plasma cytokine and chemokine levels in helminth-diabetes co-morbidity. Our data therefore offer a plausible biological mechanism for the protective effect of helminth infections against T2DM. [41]
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    In this paper, we provide a comprehensive review of intestinal helminths' protective effects against T2D. [42]

    A proof-of-concept human clinical trial is currently underway on the safety and usefulness of the human hookworm for patients with metabolic syndrome. [43]

    Type 2 diabetes and the immune system[edit | edit source]

    It is becoming more apparent that the immune system is involved in T2D, as researchers find that experimental immunomodulation has an effect on this condition [44] Helminths are known immunomodulators, and there is evidence that they affect the immune system in a way that can help T2D [45] [46] [47] [48]

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    Helminth-induced type 2 cytokines increase the number of regulatory T cells and alternatively activated macrophages, resulting in modulation of the host-immune system. Studies on these parasite-induced immunoregulatory mechanisms might contribute to the development of new therapies for inflammatory diseases, including type 2 diabetes. [49]
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    Helminths and certain protozoan parasites are able to manipulate the host immune response towards a TH2 immune phenotype that is beneficial for their survival, and there is emerging data that there is an inverse correlation between the incidence of MetS (metabolic syndrome) and helminth infections, suggesting that, as with autoimmune and allergic diseases, helminths may play a protective role against MetS disease. [50]

    There is also growing evidence to suggest that type 2 diabetes involves inflammation, [51] [52] and inflammation may be the reason why high blood sugar levels damage blood vessels in people with diabetes. [53] It’s been known for more than a decade that helminths are effective against inflammation [54] [55] [56] [57] [58]. A 2017 study found that:

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    ...helminth infections... can modulate IR is by inducing a chronic, nonspecific, low-grade, immune suppression mediated by modified T-helper 2 (Th2) response (induction of both Th2 and regulatory T cells) which can in turn suppress the proinflammatory responses and promote insulin sensitivity. [59]

    Research on mechanisms of prevention and treatment[edit | edit source]

    Controlled studies on animal models have helped scientists understand how helminth infection can prevent T2D through immunomodulation, gut biome alteration, fatty acid metabolism, and other mechanisms. [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67]

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    Parasitic nematode infection has both preventive and therapeutic effects against the development of obesity and associated features of metabolic dysfunction in mice. [68]
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    Recent studies in mice describe how type 2 immune cells, traditionally associated with helminth infection, maintain adipose tissue homeostasis and promote adipose tissue beiging, protecting against obesity and metabolic dysfunction. [69]

    Studies on whether helminths may be an effective treatment, as well as an effective preventative measure, have also shown promise.

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    ...nematode infection appears to provide an effective option for the treatment of T2D by improving inflammatory status through restoration of the cytokine imbalance, inhibition of glucose absorption from the small intestine and decline of excess fat accumulation in the liver. [70]
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    We demonstrate a beneficial effect of helminth infection on the systemic inflammatory milieu, intestinal dysbiosis and metabolic endotoxemia, that is highly characteristic of T2DM. [71]
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    The present study suggests that experimental infection with low hookworm doses is safe and is associated with improvements in glucose homoeostasis in people with Metabolic Syndrome and at risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. [72]

    Scientific papers on helminths and T2D[edit | edit source]

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    In summary, our study reveals that hookworm infestation may confer protection against the pathology associated with T2DM by alleviating the altered levels of glucose indices, pancreatic hormones, incretins, and adipocytokines… Furthermore, our results highlight the potential of worms as a new therapeutic strategy to conquer T2DM by regulating host immunity.
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    The present study suggests that experimental infection with low hookworm doses is safe and is associated with improvements in glucose homoeostasis in people with Metabolic Syndrome and at risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus.
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    By regulating the activities of islet macrophages and β-cells (and other endocrine cells), helminth parasites shape their crosstalk. This offers a unique opportunity to exploit helminths’ mechanisms for survival in their mammalian hosts to establish an environment that preserves β-cell mass and function and thus offers the potential as a cure for both T1D and T2D.
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    Our findings suggest that mass deworming has long-term harmful health consequences by significantly increasing the probability of diabetes
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    Our data suggest that Strongyloides stercoralis infection could play a beneficial role by limiting or delaying T2DM-related vascular complications.
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    While infection with helminths was generally associated with improved metabolic function, there were notable differences in efficacy between parasite species.
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    Herein we describe a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase 1b safety and tolerability trial that will assess the effect of inoculation with 20 or 40 infective stage three larvae (L3) of Na on body fat composition, inflammation and immune response, in otherwise healthy women and men aged 18–50 with central obesity and features of MetS over 24 months.
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    In this review we discuss how helminths, which are among the strongest natural inducers of type 2 immunity, and some of their unique immunomodulatory molecules, may contribute to the maintenance of tissue-specific and whole-body metabolic homeostasis and protection against obesity-associated meta-inflammation… Importantly, controlled human infection with Necator americanus shows promising results in terms of safety and tolerability…
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    This review seeks to give an overview of the current international diabetes burden, the evidence for interactions between diabetes and infection, immune mechanisms for the interaction, and potential interventions to tackle the dual burden of diabetes and infection.
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    Collectively, our results demonstrated that S. japonicum infection improved glucose tolerance and other metabolic parameters both in human and animals.
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    In this review, we discuss studies that have provided evidence for the beneficial impact of helminth infections on T1D and T2D.
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    In this review, we summarize epidemiological evidence for the link between helminths and T2D and discuss the potential mechanisms, based on findings from experimental studies as well as the limited number of studies in humans.
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    This review aims to examine the literature on the effect of helminthic infections on metabolic outcomes in humans.
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    In this review we summarize studies that investigated parasitic helminths and helminth-derived products and their impact on both type 1 and type 2 diabetes highlighting potential protective mechanisms.
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    In this review, we survey existing studies in the non-human animal and human literature, highlight unresolved questions and suggest future directions to explore the role of helminths in the etiology of cardio-metabolic disease.
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    ...recent literature indicates that various aspects of the Th2-associated inflammatory response contribute to metabolic homeostasis.
    This review covers the mechanisms by which helminth infection affects the occurrence of T2D and cardiovascular disease.

    More papers are listed on the Helminthic therapy research page.

    Personal experiences[edit | edit source]

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    My blood sugar came down steadily with my first few doses of HDC, until I was getting readings of 70 (close to perilously low!). Then it normalized to 90-100 range (excellent even for non-diabetics) when dosing with 30 every 2 weeks. When a shipment went astray, my blood sugar crept up to diabetic levels again. The replacement dose arrived 2 weeks late, but brought quick relief, and five days after taking this dose, I was normal again. My blood sugar readings went down each day: first 130 (solidly diabetic), next day 122 (borderline), then 110 (fair), 103 (good) until today 100, NORMAL! (Received via email.)
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    I used to be classified as pre diabetic with a BG of 7.1 consistently over a decade. I have helminths now (NA and TTO) and I run 4.5 consistently. [73]Quotein.gif Roughly 10-15% of type 2 diabetes cases may be an autoimmune disorder known as latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA), also known as "type 1.5" diabetes. [74]

    A helminthic therapy user with LADA shared his experience:

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    I am 60+ male who developed LADA (latent auto-immune diabetes in adults - sometimes called Type 1.5) out of the blue appx 20+ years ago. It gradually evolved to becoming insulin dependent. Nov. 2014 (13 months ago), all was going pretty well until I developed flu-like symptoms… Small doses of ibuprofen kept the pain at bay, but overall health continued to deteriorate… Then came the periodic double vision and ocular aches. January 31st, I started losing vision in one eye for 10 minutes at a time… My CRP was 165 and Sed Rate was 67. Oops! Neural ophthalmologist and Rheumatology Docs put me on high dose of Prednisone (60mg) to knock out the inflammation which had localized in the fat cells behind my eyes… by June the docs could not determine what caused this inflammatory outbreak. They ruled out everything and primarily ended up with a diagnosis of auto-immune disease with inflammation of unknown origin. Put me on 20mg weekly of Methotrexate (MTX) to replace the prednisone, but there was still some residual inflammation around my eyes. Rheumatologists wanted to put me on Rituximab… Still fatigued most of the time. My primary suggested HT as another approach. I began taking HDC at end of July. After 3 doses I was feeling much better and started reducing my doses of MTX… I increased doses to 60 ova biweekly in mid-October and have stayed at that dose. I weaned off MTX and stopped it entirely in mid-Nov. My inflammation markers are back to normal (CRP is 4.4; Sed Rate is 11) and I feel better than I have in 12 months… Ophthalmologist says everything looks ok and to only call if any symptoms return… My primary and I are both pleased with how HT is going. [75]

    Other information[edit | edit source]

    Those with diabetes might also find the following information interesting.

    Diabetes and the gut[edit | edit source]

    Diabetes and nutrition[edit | edit source]

    Additional approaches[edit | edit source]

    Things to avoid[edit | edit source]

    The reintroduction to the digestive tract of a controlled number of specially domesticated, mutualistic helminths (intestinal worms) in the form of microscopic eggs or larvae to reconstitute a depleted biome to treat or prevent chronic inflammation, autoimmune disease and other immune-related disorders, including allergy.

    The reintroduction to the digestive tract of a controlled number of specially domesticated, mutualistic helminths (intestinal worms) in the form of microscopic eggs or larvae to reconstitute a depleted biome to treat or prevent chronic inflammation, autoimmune disease and other immune-related disorders, including allergy.

    An intestinal worm which grows large enough to be seen with the naked eye when mature but which is microscopic when administered in helminthic therapy. Wikipedia:Helminths

    An intestinal worm which grows large enough to be seen with the naked eye when mature but which is microscopic when administered in helminthic therapy. Wikipedia:Helminths

    An intestinal worm which grows large enough to be seen with the naked eye when mature but which is microscopic when administered in helminthic therapy. Wikipedia:Helminths

    The reintroduction to the digestive tract of a controlled number of specially domesticated, mutualistic helminths (intestinal worms) in the form of microscopic eggs or larvae to reconstitute a depleted biome to treat or prevent chronic inflammation, autoimmune disease and other immune-related disorders, including allergy.

    The specific population of microorganisms living in a certain part of the body, such as the gut. "Microbiome" refers to all the microorganisms living in and on the body, or the genome of these microorganisms. These two terms are often used interchangeably.

    An organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits at the host’s expense. (The organisms used in helminthic therapy are, strictly speaking, not parasites, but mutualists, because they have a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship with their hosts.)

    An organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits at the host’s expense. (The organisms used in helminthic therapy are, strictly speaking, not parasites, but mutualists, because they have a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship with their hosts.)

    hookworm, usually referring to the human hookworm, Necator americanus

    The introduction of an infectious agent into an organism. Helminth inoculation

    C-reactive protein is an inflammation marker but is not a reliable indicator of inflammation, especially in chronic inflammatory disorders.

    helminthic therapy

    Hymenolepis diminuta cysticercoids (Hi-men-o-lep'is dim-a-nu-ta sis-ti-sur-koid) - the larval cysts of the rat tapeworm, Hymenolepis diminuta

    A helminth that lives in the small intestine. Necator americanus (NA) is the only hookworm species used in helminthic therapy. Its microscopic larvae are applied periodically to the skin.

    the human hookworm, Necator americanus

    A helminth that lives in the small intestine. Necator americanus (NA) is the only hookworm species used in helminthic therapy. Its microscopic larvae are applied periodically to the skin.

    An intestinal worm which grows large enough to be seen with the naked eye when mature but which is microscopic when administered in helminthic therapy. Wikipedia:Helminths

    A substance capable of eliminating or destroying intestinal worms.

    a change which is a result or consequence of an action or other cause.

    A helminth that lives in the small intestine. Necator americanus (NA) is the only hookworm species used in helminthic therapy. Its microscopic larvae are applied periodically to the skin.

    An organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits at the host’s expense. (The organisms used in helminthic therapy are, strictly speaking, not parasites, but mutualists, because they have a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship with their hosts.)

    An organism that lives in or on another organism (its host) and benefits at the host’s expense. (The organisms used in helminthic therapy are, strictly speaking, not parasites, but mutualists, because they have a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship with their hosts.)

    A category of worms with slender, unsegmented, cylindrical bodies that include roundworms and threadworms.

    The roundworm that causes strongyloidiasis and is known as 'pinworm' in the UK and 'threadworm' in the US. Infection with S. stercoralis can be fatal.

    the ability to produce a desired or intended result.

    The active immature form of an insect, or an animal such as a helminth, which develops from an egg and eventually transforms again into its adult state.

    The species of human hookworm used in helminthic therapy. Its microscopic larvae are applied periodically to the skin.

    the ova (eggs) of the human whipworm, Trichuris trichiura

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