Mechanisms underlying helminth colonization
This page aims to describe the different mechanisms underlying helminth colonization. It requires better classification.
There are many different helminth species, belonging to different phyla. Since these may use different mechanisms from each other, the effects of one species can not be generalized to others.
Percutaneous penetration[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Aug 7 TRPV1 neurons promote cutaneous immunity against Schistosoma mansoni -- Full text (media coverage Newsweek "Opioids: Parasitic Worm Discovery Could Lead to Safer Painkillers", SciTechDaily, ScienceDaily)
- 2025 Mar 1 Myeloid-derived IL-33 drives γδ T cell-dependent resistance against cutaneous infection by Strongyloides ratti (May not be not relevant to therapeutic helminths.)
- 2025 Acquired resistance against penetration by strongylodies ratti is mediated by IL-33-dependent induction of gamma delta T cells -- PDF (thesis) (May not be not relevant to therapeutic helminths.)
- 2024 Nov MrgprA3 neurons drive cutaneous immunity against helminths through selective control of myeloid-derived IL-33 -- Full text
Tissue-protective response[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Jun 12 A type 1 immune-stromal cell network mediates disease tolerance against intestinal infection -- Full text
- 2018 Sep 20 Host–Parasite Interactions Promote Disease Tolerance to Intestinal Helminth Infection -- Full text | PDF
Lung Effect[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Jun 19 Rapid group-2 innate lymphoid cell mobilization from the intestine aids in early lung defense and repair -- Full text
- 2025 May 8 Macrophage-Derived Relmα Promotes Lung Tissue Repair Following Helminth Infection In a Murine Model (capstone project)
- 2023 Oct 13 Myeloid- and epithelial-derived RELMα contribute to tissue repair following lung helminth infection -- Full text | PDF
- 2019 Dec 2 ILC2s mediate systemic innate protection by priming mucus production at distal mucosal sites -- Full text | PDF
Wound Healing[edit | edit source]
- 2023 Feb 13 Helminth egg derivatives as proregenerative immunotherapies -- Full text | PDF (improved repair and decreased fibrosis). "These immunotherapies have the potential to promote wound healing and inhibit fibrosis across multiple tissues and injury types."
Microbiota change[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Apr 23 Helminth reshapes host gut microbiota and immunoregulation by deploying an antimicrobial program of innate immunity -- Full text | PDF
- 2022 Nov 1 Helminths and Bacterial Microbiota: The Interactions of Two of Humans’ “Old Friends” -- Full text | PDF
- 2022 Jun Microbial regulation of intestinal motility provides resistance against helminth infection -- Full text | PDF
- 2021 Nov 8 Evidence of MHC class I and II influencing viral and helminth infection via the microbiome in a non-human primate -- Full text | PDF
- 2021 Jun 2 The interplay between Trichuris and the microbiota -- Full text | PDF
- 2020 Jul 3 Helminth-induced and Th2-dependent Alterations of the Gut Microbiota Attenuate Obesity Caused by High Fat Diet -- Full text | PDF
- 2020 Feb 20 Whipworm Infection Promotes Bacterial Invasion, Intestinal Microbiota Imbalance, and Cellular Immunomodulation -- Full text | PDF
- 2018 Oct 8 Parasitic Nematodes Exert Antimicrobial Activity and Benefit From Microbiota-Driven Support for Host Immune Regulation -- Full text | PDF
- 2018 Mar 14 Manipulation of host and parasite microbiotas: Survival strategies during chronic nematode infection -- Full text | PDF
- ✅ 2016 Apr 14 Helminth infection promotes colonization resistance via type 2 immunity -- Full text | PDF
- 2015 Oct 27 The Intestinal Microbiota Contributes to the Ability of Helminths to Modulate Allergic Inflammation -- Full text | PDF
- 2015 May 4 Chronic Trichuris muris Infection in C57BL/6 Mice Causes Significant Changes in Host Microbiota and Metabolome: Effects Reversed by Pathogen Clearance -- Full text | PDF
- 2014 May 22 Helminth colonization is associated with increased diversity of the gut microbiota -- Full text | PDF
See also Helminths and the gut microbiota for more papers.
Intestinal barrier function[edit | edit source]
- 2023 Nov Helminths' therapeutic potential to treat intestinal barrier dysfunction -- Full text | PDF
- 2023 Aug 27 Regulation and function of adiponectin in the intestinal epithelial cells in response to Trichinella spiralis infection -- Full text | PDF
Effect on lipid metabolism[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Jun 12 Intestinal lymphatic vasculature is functionally adapted to different drainage regions and is altered by helminth infection -- Full text | PDF
Collectively, these observations demonstrate that helminth infections alter the structure of duodenal lacteals and compromise duodenal lymphatic lipid uptake, leading to lipid accumulation in epithelial cells and, under high fat diet conditions, decreased weight gain.
- 2025 Intestinal helminth Schyzocotyle acheilognathi Yamaguti, 1934 infection ameliorate lipid metabolism of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) through immune and gut microbiota regulation (May not be not relevant to therapeutic helminths.)
- 2020 Jul 3 Helminth-induced and Th2-dependent Alterations of the Gut Microbiota Attenuate Obesity Caused by High Fat Diet -- Full text | PDF
Neuroprotection[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Jun 3 An experimental study of the dual modulation of the colchicine-induced rat model of Alzheimer's disease by superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) and the soluble product of Dipylidium caninum adult worm -- Full text -- PDF
- 2023 Sep 12 Modulation of LPS-Induced Neurodegeneration by Intestinal Helminth Infection in Ageing Mice -- Full Text | PDF
- 2022 Sept 7 Monocytes maintain central nervous system homeostasis following helminth-induced inflammation -- Full text | PDF
- 2022 Aug 24 Trichinella Infection Ameliorated Vincristine-Induced Neuroinflammation in Mice -- Full text | PDF
- 2016 Jan Got Worms? Perinatal Exposure to Helminths Prevents Persistent Immune Sensitization and Cognitive Dysfunction Induced by Early-Life Infection (Also see The “Old Friends” hypothesis: Reopening a can of worms.)
Effects on specific pathways[edit | edit source]
Epithelial cell and mucus barrier[edit | edit source]
- 2023 Nov Helminths' therapeutic potential to treat intestinal barrier dysfunction -- Full text | PDF
- 2015 Jun 18 Differential alterations in the small intestine epithelial cell turnover during acute and chronic infection with Echinostoma caproni -- Full text | PDF
- 2013 Mar 29 Requirement for core 2 O-glycans for optimal resistance to helminth infection -- Full text | PDF
- 2012 Oct 11 Serine protease(s) secreted by the nematode Trichuris muris degrade the mucus barrier -- Full text | PDF
- 2011 May 9 Muc5ac: a critical component mediating the rejection of enteric nematodes -- Full text | PDF
- 2005 Jun 3 Accelerated intestinal epithelial cell turnover: a new mechanism of parasite expulsion -- Full text
Tuft cell[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Jun 20 Excretory/secretory products from Hymenolepis nana adult worms alleviate ulcerative colitis in mice via tuft/IL-13 signaling pathway -- Full text | PDF
- 2025 Apr 21 Metabolomic and functional analyses of small molecules secreted by intestinal nematodes in the activation of epithelial tuft cells -- Full text | PDF
- 2025 Mar 12 Tuft cell IL-17RB restrains IL-25 bioavailability and reveals context-dependent ILC2 hypoproliferation -- Full text | PDF
- 2025 Mar 11 Adult Hymenolepis nana and its excretory-secretory products elicit mouse immune responses via tuft/IL-13 and FOXM1 signaling pathways -- Full text | PDF
- 2024 Sept 26 Tuft cells in the intestine, immunity and beyond -- Full text
- 2024 Jun 11 Tuft cell-derived acetylcholine promotes epithelial chloride secretion and intestinal helminth clearance
- 2024 Jan 11 Tuft cell acetylcholine is released into the gut lumen to promote anti-helminth immunity -- Full text
- 2023 Mar 22 Tuft cell-derived acetylcholine regulates epithelial fluid secretion -- Full text | PDF (preprint)
- 2023 Tuft cell-derived acetylcholine regulates epithelial fluid secretion and helminth clearance (thesis)
- 2022 Sept 3 Sirtuin 6 maintains epithelial STAT6 activity to support intestinal tuft cell development and type 2 immunity -- Full text | PDF
- 2022 Apr 12 Epithelial STAT6 O-GlcNAcylation drives a concerted anti-helminth alarmin response dependent on tuft cell hyperplasia and Gasdermin C -- Full text | PDF
- 2022 Feb 14 Tuft Cells and Their Role in Intestinal Diseases -- Full text | PDF
- 2022 Differentiation and activation of tuft cells tunes type 2 immunity in the small intestine (thesis)
- 2021 feb Tuning tuft cells: new ligands and effector functions reveal tissue-specific function -- Full text | PDF
- 2020 Jul 30 Helminth Sensing at the Intestinal Epithelial Barrier-A Taste of Things to Come -- Full text | PDF
- 2016 Mar 18 Tuft cells, taste-chemosensory cells, orchestrate parasite type 2 immunity in the gut -- Full text | PDF (Science)
- 2016 Jan 14 Intestinal epithelial tuft cells initiate type 2 mucosal immunity to helminth parasites -- Full text | PDF (Nature)
Monocytes[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Jul 8 Ascaris Lumbricoides Cystatin Impairs IL-1β Maturation and CD14 Expression in Human Monocytes -- Full text
- 2024 Aug Helminth induced monocytosis conveys protection from respiratory syncytial virus infection in mice -- Full text
- 2017 Apr 8 Regulatory monocytes in helminth infections: insights from the modulation during human hookworm infection -- Full text | PDF
Dendritic Cells[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Jan 7 Cystatin from the helminth Ascaris lumbricoides upregulates mevalonate and cholesterol biosynthesis pathways and immunomodulatory genes in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells -- Full text | PDF
- 2020 Mar Body fluid from the parasitic worm Ascaris suum inhibits broad-acting pro-inflammatory programs in dendritic cells -- Full text | PDF
- 2019 Jul 15 Cell-Intrinsic Wnt4 Influences Conventional Dendritic Cell Fate Determination to Suppress Type 2 Immunity -- Full text
- 2018 May Modulation of human dendritic cell activity by Giardia and helminth antigens -- Full text
- 2018 Jan 4 Ascaris Suum Infection Downregulates Inflammatory Pathways in the Pig Intestine In Vivo and in Human Dendritic Cells In Vitro -- Full text
- 2010 Jan Helminth infection inhibits airway allergic reaction and dendritic cells are involved in the modulation process -- Full text | PDF
Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s)[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Jun 19 Rapid group-2 innate lymphoid cell mobilization from the intestine aids in early lung defense and repair -- Full text
- 2025 Jun 12 Gut ILC2s remember IL-25
- 2022 Apr The neuropeptide VIP potentiates intestinal innate type 2 and type 3 immunity in response to feeding -- Full text (also in French here)
- 2019 Dec 2 ILC2s mediate systemic innate protection by priming mucus production at distal mucosal sites -- Full text | PDF
- 2016 Jun Immune polarization by hookworms: taking cues from T helper type 2, type 2 innate lymphoid cells and alternatively activated macrophages -- Full text
See also (not directly related) :
- 2025 May 6 RAG suppresses group 2 innate lymphoid cells -- Full text | PDF
NLRP6[edit | edit source]
Restraint of TVM cell expansion[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Feb 7 IL-4 induces CD22 expression to restrain the effector program of virtual memory T cells (Also reported by ScienceDaily [1])
CD4+ Th2 responses[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Jul 10 Hypoxia-inducible factor 2α promotes protective Th2 cell responses during intestinal helminth infection -- Full text
- 2025 May 16 Notch-activated basophils support intestinal CD4+ T cell fate and function during Trichuris muris infection -- Full text
- 2025 Notch-Activated Basophils Support Intestinal CD4+ T Cell Fate and Function During Helminth Infection (thesis)
- 2023 Aug Basophil responses in susceptible AKR mice upon infection with the intestinal helminth parasite Trichuris muris -- Full text | PDF
- 2019 Jun 3 The Notch signaling pathway promotes basophil responses during helminth-induced type 2 inflammation -- Full text | PDF
- 2018 Jul 26 Trichinella spiralis Infection Mitigates Collagen-Induced Arthritis via Programmed Death 1-Mediated Immunomodulation -- Full text | PDF
- 2017 Jan Primary Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri infection induces myeloid-derived suppressor cells that suppress CD4+ Th2 responses and promote chronic infection -- Full text
- 2014 Oct 15 The Differentiation of CD4(+) T-Helper Cell Subsets in the Context of Helminth Parasite Infection -- Full text | PDF
Treg cells[edit | edit source]
- 2018 Oct 8 Parasitic Nematodes Exert Antimicrobial Activity and Benefit From Microbiota-Driven Support for Host Immune Regulation -- Full text | PDF
- 2016 Mar Low-level regulatory T-cell activity is essential for functional type-2 effector immunity to expel gastrointestinal helminths -- Full text | PDF
IL-22[edit | edit source]
- 2016 Apr 7 IL-22 Restrains Tapeworm-Mediated Protection against Experimental Colitis via Regulation of IL-25 Expression -- Full text | PDF
IL-33[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Acquired resistance against penetration by strongylodies ratti is mediated by IL-33-dependent induction of gamma delta T cells -- PDF (thesis) (May not be not relevant to therapeutic helminths.)
- 2024 Jun 19 Structural basis for IL-33 recognition and its antagonism by the helminth effector protein HpARI2 -- Full text | PDF
- 2020 Nov 20 Interleukin-33 promotes serotonin release from enterochromaffin cells for intestinal homeostasis -- Full text | PDF (comment : 2021 Jan 12 IL-33 Changes Our "Gut Feelings" about Serotonin -- Full text)
- 2017 Oct 17 HpARI Protein Secreted by a Helminth Parasite Suppresses Interleukin-33 -- Full text | PDF (Allergy, asthma)
- 2014 Sept Blockade of IL-33 release and suppression of type 2 innate lymphoid cell responses by helminth secreted products in airway allergy -- Full text | PDF
- 2013 Jan 2 IL-33 drives biphasic IL-13 production for noncanonical Type 2 immunity against hookworms -- Full text
- 2012 Mar 12 Trefoil factor 2 rapidly induces interleukin 33 to promote type 2 immunity during allergic asthma and hookworm infection -- Full text | PDF
See also Amphiregulin cytokine.
Amphiregulin[edit | edit source]
- 2006 Dec 15 Amphiregulin, a TH2 cytokine enhancing resistance to nematodes -- Full text (Science)
see also :
- 2018 Jul 17 Amphiregulin-Producing Pathogenic Memory T Helper 2 Cells Instruct Eosinophils to Secrete Osteopontin and Facilitate Airway Fibrosis -- Full text
- 2015 Aug 27 A Distinct Function of Regulatory T Cells in Tissue Protection -- Full text | PDF
Trefoil factor[edit | edit source]
- 2022 Mar Trefoil Factor Family: A Troika for Lung Repair and Regeneration -- Full text
- 2021 Oct 18 Parasitic helminth infections in humans modulate Trefoil Factor levels in a manner dependent on the species of parasite and age of the host -- Full text
- 2019 Jan Macrophages promote epithelial proliferation following infectious and non-infectious lung injury through a Trefoil factor 2-dependent mechanism -- Full text
- 2018 May Trefoil Factor 2 Promotes Type 2 Immunity and Lung Repair through Intrinsic Roles in Hematopoietic and Nonhematopoietic Cells -- Full text
- 2012 Mar 12 Trefoil factor 2 rapidly induces interleukin 33 to promote type 2 immunity during allergic asthma and hookworm infection -- Full text | PDF
Foxp3 / Foxp3+[edit | edit source]
- 2017 Jul 13 A. suum infection modulates inflammation: implication of CD4+CD25hi Foxp3+ T cells and IL-10
- 2016 Nov 1 Anti-Arthritic Activity of Schistosoma mansoni and Trichinella spiralis Derived-Antigens in Adjuvant Arthritis in Rats: Role of FOXP3+ Treg Cells -- Full text | PDF
- 2013 Aug 15 Schistosoma mansoni-mediated suppression of allergic airway inflammation requires patency and Foxp3+ Treg cells -- Full text | PDF
- 2012 Helminth antigens enable CpG-activated dendritic cells to inhibit the symptoms of collagen-induced arthritis through Foxp3+ regulatory T cells -- Full text | PDF
- 2010 May Regulatory B cells prevent and reverse allergic airway inflammation via FoxP3-positive T regulatory cells in a murine model -- Full text
- 2009 Jan Schistosoma mansoni antigens modulate experimental allergic asthma in a murine model: a major role for CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ T cells independent of interleukin-10 -- Full text | PDF
See also (may not be related)
- 2023 Apr FOXP3+ macrophage represses acute ischemic stroke-induced neural inflammation -- Full text | PDF
Serotonin[edit | edit source]
- 2020 Nov 20 Interleukin-33 promotes serotonin release from enterochromaffin cells for intestinal homeostasis -- Full text | PDF (comment : 2021 Jan 12 IL-33 Changes Our "Gut Feelings" about Serotonin -- Full text)
- 2019 May 15 TLR2 Plays a Pivotal Role in Mediating Mucosal Serotonin Production in the Gut -- Full text
- 2018 Sept 3 Modulation of the immune response by helminths: a role for serotonin? -- Full text | PDF
see also :
- 2024 Mar 15 Gut bacteria-derived serotonin promotes immune tolerance in early life -- Full text | PDF
Bile acid homeostasis[edit | edit source]
- 2023 Jul 6 Chronic small intestinal helminth infection perturbs bile acid homeostasis and disrupts bile acid signaling in the murine small intestine -- Full text | PDF
RAGE signaling pathway[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Sep 8 Receptor for advanced glycation end products regulates the pulmonary and intestinal host responses to the infection with the parasitic nematode Nippostrongylus brasiliensis -- Full text
Excretory/secretory (E/S) products[edit | edit source]
Extracellular vesicles[edit | edit source]
- 2019 Feb 14 Exploration of extracellular vesicles from Ascaris suum provides evidence of parasite-host cross talk -- Full text | PDF
MicroRNA[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Mar 27 A secreted helminth microRNA suppresses gastrointestinal cell differentiation required for innate immunity -- Full text | PDF
Gastrointestinal nematodes exploit a host miRNA regulatory network to suppress host innate responses, promote tissue regeneration and establish a favourable environment for chronic infection
Antagonist of TLR4 signaling pathway[edit | edit source]
- 2025 Jun 23 Quantitative Proteomics Reveals Fh15 as an Antagonist of TLR4 Downregulating the Activation of NF-κB, Inducible Nitric Oxide, Phagosome Signaling Pathways, and Oxidative Stress of LPS-Stimulated Macrophages (preprint)
- 2011 May 12 A family of helminth molecules that modulate innate cell responses via molecular mimicry of host antimicrobial peptides -- Full text | PDF
Antagonist of RAGE signaling pathway[edit | edit source]
- 2021 Jun 3 Venestatin from parasitic helminths interferes with receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE)-mediated immune responses to promote larval migration -- Full text | PDF
Various[edit | edit source]
- 2024 Jul The Secretome of Adult Murine Hookworms Is Shaped by Host Expression of STAT6 -- Full text -- PDF
- 2023 Jan 20 Immunomodulators secreted from parasitic helminths act on pattern recognition receptors -- Full text | PDF
- 2022 Sept 9 Immunomodulatory and biological properties of helminth-derived small molecules: Potential applications in diagnostics and therapeutics -- Full text | PDF
- 2019 May Effects of Ascaris and Trichuris antigens on cytokine production in porcine blood mononuclear and epithelial cells -- Full text
- 2018 Nov 12 Immunoproteomics and Surfaceomics of the Adult Tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta -- Full text
- 2017 May Study on the mitochondrial apoptosis pathways of small cell lung cancer H446 cells induced by Trichinella spiralis muscle larvae ESPs -- Full text
- 2005 Feb Excretory/secretory products of sheep abomasal nematode parasites cause vacuolation and increased neutral red uptake by HeLa cells -- Full text
Others[edit | edit source]
To be classified.
- 2025 Jul 25 Gasdermin C cleavage by Cathepsin S modulates Rab7 vesicles in intestinal epithelial cells to amplify anti-helminth immunity
- 2025 Jul 24 In vitro immunomodulatory effect of opisthorchis felineus hemozoin on dendritic cells of children with bronchial asthma -- PDF (russian)
- 2024 Jan-Dec Gut microbiota-mediated polyphenol metabolism is restrained by parasitic whipworm infection and associated with altered immune function in mice -- Full text | PDF
- 2023 Dec 11 Hookworms dynamically respond to loss of Type 2 immune pressure -- Full text
- 2022 Aug Antigens from the parasitic nematode Trichuris suis induce metabolic reprogramming and trained immunity to constrain inflammatory responses in macrophages || Full text
- 2022 Jun Tissue-specific immunity in helminth infections -- Full text | PDF (review)
- 2022 Jun "Every cell is an immune cell; contributions of non-hematopoietic cells to anti-helminth immunity" -- Full text (review)
- 2021 Nov 8 Evidence of MHC class I and II influencing viral and helminth infection via the microbiome in a non-human primate -- Full text | PDF
- 2018 Oct 12 Immunomodulation by Helminths: Intracellular Pathways and Extracellular Vesicles -- Full text | PDF
- 2018 Aug 15 Silent Witness: Dual-Species Transcriptomics Reveals Epithelial Immunological Quiescence to Helminth Larval Encounter and Fostered Larval Development -- Full text | PDF
- 2017 Sep Intestinal helminth infection impacts the systemic distribution and function of the naive lymphocyte pool -- Full text